The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical cost. by Ruth Lloyd

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Ruth Lloyd MA Textiles 2020 Royal College of Art Word Count: 10,940

Contents page

Introduction:

Colour and its Complex History. Colour and its Significance. Colour and the Lack of Awareness.

6 9 19

Chapter 1:

Processes of Colouring Textiles. Traditional Natural Dyeing. Synthetic Dyeing.

23 29

Chapter 2:

Chapter 3:

Chapter 4:

Conclusion:

The Control of Colour and Resulting Damage. Developing Systems of Colouration.

The Need for a Shift in Attitudes Towards Colour. Changing the Problem Landscape. References List of Illustrations Bibliography.

75 78 80

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Figure 1. Authors own image of the production of a printed textile design using thickened dye pastes.

Introduction

Introduction. This essay will examine why colour is a valued part of life, alongside a critical engagement with the historical, current and future of colouring textiles. Attention will be paid to the impact of dyeing processes on the environment, the social implications and the human cost.

Current development, design innovation and speculative future systems will also be reviewed as potential solutions to the contemporary issues highlighted.

A variety of approaches will be explored including personal viewpoint in addition to historical and scientific accounts. Interviews and dialogues with practitioners and researchers will be interwoven to further engage with concepts and data discovered.

a great power to damage, it can be manipulated for wealth and easily exploited to harm the natural world from which it is derived. Nonetheless, colour is not evil, as no one thing is all evil or all good, however it is essential to examine both sides of the story.

Primary and secondary sources will be utilised including books, documentaries, scientific journals, sustainability reports, and investigative journalism. Effort will be made to critically analyse the validity of data and statistics discovered and a thorough investigation, through a question-based methodology, will be employed.

Colour is deemed to be an enjoyable and exciting part of the human experience of life, but this comes at a costi. Colour is something that has

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Colour and its Complex History.

Currently there is a high emphasis on the damage caused by the existing, petroleum reliant, system of colouring textiles. However, colour’s complex history pre-dates the introduction of organic synthetic dyes by several thousand years. In fact, it could be argued that the human relationship with colouring its environment and the materials within it has not been healthy for a long time. Even before synthetic dyes were industrialised, most famously by William Perkins in 18561, colour from natural sources was already being consumed and being used to exploit both humans and the natural world.2

“Increasing mechanization of the European textile industry in the 1700’s stimulated an unprecedented demand for natural dyes.” Phyllis Windle. ii

1. William Perkins was technically not the first to chemically synthesize a dye, it was being done as far back as the 3rd century BC with mentioned examples of Orchil, a purplishblue dye obtained from lichen, by the Greek botanist Theophrastus. Another example is Murexide, a purple synthesized from uric acid extracted from Peruvian Guano.

2. The indigo trade in particular, often brutal and bloody, can be traced back to the 4th century BC in India. Often referred to as ‘Blue gold’ for its potent religious and symbolic significance as well as its source of strong and lasting colour, has long been associated with the exploitation and abuse of workers.

Introduction: Colour and its Complex History

The natural dye trade3 was a

profitable industry,4 primarily run by European imperial powers, capitalising on the labour, indigenous knowledge and the natural wealth of the countries they colonised.5

Since at least the mid 16th century natural dyes and coloured textiles have had links to the slave trade.6 Not only did slaves work on plantations in India and the Americas to cultivate and produce natural dyes, with indigo being described as the cornerstone of the transatlantic slave trade, but often slaves were traded in exchange for lengths of coloured cloth.iii The subcontinent of India were the finest producers of coloured cloth in the world, due to hundreds, perhaps thousands of years of practice and study. When the Europeans colonised India they also appropriated their systems of colour and industrialised them for their own reward.iv A further example of the exploitation of natural resources and indigenous cultural practices of colouring clothv is the British colony of Belize7 which became a source of grey/black dyes, from the logwood tree, for wider use in European industries. 3. In the 13th-19th centuries. 4. Dating back to ancient times where the Romans traded dyes with Egypt and China. 5. In fact, the trade of dyes such as cochineal, Indigo, Annatto and Logwood, as extremely valued commodities were the major stimulation for the creation of international trade system.

Figure 2. One step in the process of creating an indigo vat for dyeing.

Then when synthetic dyes were invented, as a cheaper and more efficient system of colouring, these were then taken back to those same indigenous communities, in the Americas and in Asia, where their introduction meant the loss of so much knowledge.vi

6. It could be argued that the colour industry has always been linked to the slave trade. In the Greco-Roman era, slaves were used to produce the famous imperial purple from Murex sea snails due to its awful stench and the intense manual labour needed. 7. Historical account discovered during a personal trip to Belize, to an area inland which used to be rich in logwood trees.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

“Such was the competition, brutality and rivalry in indigo production from the 16th to the 19th century, indigo is even referred to as ‘the devil’s dye”. Rosie Lessovii

8. All previous attempts to grow indigo in the Americas had been unsuccessful until 1739, when Eliza Lucas, at the age of 17, was given charge of her father’s land. West Africa has a long history of indigo cultivation and use, and she reportedly made use of the cultural knowledge of her enslaved workers. It is thought that in South Carolina slaves provided the labour but also supervised the whole operation of producing indigo.

The colonisation of the Americas in the 16th and 17th century instigated the cultivation of large quantities of economically important crops (indigo being one of them), and the enslavement of people to do it.viii Although unsuccessful at first,8 the indigo trade boomed as a result of the knowledge of west African slaves, imported specifically to help with the cultivation of indigo, working on the plantations.9 Even once slavery was outlawed, imperial Europe was still involved in another form of exploitation in the form of sharecropping, where tenant farmers in India were forced to grow indigo for very little money.10ix

9. Interestingly slavery was illegal in Georgia until the governors needed it to keep the indigo industry going. 10. This exploitation was the first cause championed by Gandhi as part of the Indian Independence movement.

Introduction: Colour and its Significance

Colour and its Significance.

“Not even colour is without guilt” Thomas Landrain – PILI

Landrain poses the thought that it is natural for humans to colour their environments. That to live in a world without colour, akin to the technological choice of black and white photography, an artificial filter, is in fact the unnatural state.

Figure 3. Industrial wastewater containing hazardous chemicals discharged into the Cihaur river.

Colour is a reflection of nature which is perhaps one of the reasons that it is, and has been, so fiercely sought after and guarded.x

So why is it that colour is deemed important, valued, and precious? It is certainly something that the human population have died for, both in its production11 and its wear. 11. In regard to the impact of Indigo cultivation, it was said that a slave’s life expectancy was cut short by working on an Indigo plantation and the owner had to weigh up the gain from indigo trade against the cost caused by the early death of a slave.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Figure 4. Punch cartoonist John Leech, portrays the deadly price of Schweinfurt’s Emerald green. Due to the arsenic it was made from – it caused the blistering of the skin and eventual death of the wearer and much sooner the dyer.

In the case of Schweinfurt’s invention of an emerald green dye in 1814, which even after it had been proved to kill those in contact with it, was still being worn despite the grotesque consequences rather than a return to dull and drab colours.xi And yet to desire it to the point of death, strive to understand it, then now, take it for granted, how has the value system surrounding colour changed so dramatically, that now

society is able to discard of it in an instant, without thought or care? Colour influences its immediate environment but can also influence behaviours and emotions.xii Riikka Räisänen,12 declares that everybody has an opinion about colour, a favourite colour, whether one likes it or hates it, choosing to embrace it or fear it.xiii

12. Head of the Finnish BioColor Research consortium.

Introduction: Colour and its Significance

“It is hard to imagine living in a world without textiles.” Ellen MacArthur Foundationxxxii

The tangible substance that life is made of, they are literally the material connection to the world, and have been since the beginning of human life.13xiv Furthermore, with textiles come the urge to colour, control, and manipulate them, and once these skills of change: dyeing, weaving, image making, were developed a choice in personal expression was created.xv

Figure 5. Dia De Los Muertos in Guadalajara. A traditional mexican celebration, day of the dead celebrates both life and death.

The world is full of textiles; they form part of almost every interaction with the physical world. They are present at every life event: conception; birth; celebration, death. They are worn, carried, slept in, sat on, and sheltered under.

This ability to modify and control appearance and environment, to interpret self and the lived world through a viewpoint of colour further solidified the bonds between human and colour. Taussig talks of how this intentional choice of colour, of the clothing and the items a person chooses to surround themselves with, soothes and refreshes the human soul.xviBut at what cost?

13. The oldest surviving example of textiles dates back to 34,000 years ago. Discovered in a cave in the Republic of Georgia, the flax fibres show evidence of a twisted structure, to indicate yarn, and remnants of dye. This indicates techniques such as spinning, and dyeing had already been used to modify the world of material and colour surrounding the people that existed at that time.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

“As for colour, it was like a magical substance alive and flowing and human bodied even if merely expressed in words. It was the idea, of colour. It was the presence, of colour.”

xvii

Figure 6. A brightly painted boat in the phillipines. An immersion in both the natural colour of nature and human affected colour.

When this desire stays local to the individual, to what is plentiful and within arm’s reach, perhaps it can remain a harmonious part of the natural cycle; however, once it is combined with the human drive for profit and the easily manipulated urge to consume, it spirals out of control and often results in both environmental and human abuse.

Taussig’s use of language when talking of colour is almost romantic, and he continues to talk of colour as freedom, an escape from prison. This further links to the concept raised by Goethexviii that bright colours are favoured by the unrefined, the poor, the uncivilised. That vibrant hues are for those from warmer countries, typically nearer to the equator, and conceivably there is some truth in this idea.

Introduction: Colour and its Significance

Figure 7. A riot of colour at a traditional Caribbean carnival.

When considering a Caribbean carnival, Mexican Cinco de Mayo, African street festival or Spanish fiesta what images and colours come to mind? Experience suggests it’s loud and bright and free, a riot of colour in every shade and hue. And then in contrast the soiree of the upper-class, perhaps a charity auction or gala dinner, so bound by deportment and class, is likely to be pale, subdued, soothing in colour. Assumptions for both, but likely correct still.

From a personal point of view colour has always been tightly woven with emotion, happiness, joy, freedom to express, to get messy. Coloured paste squashing through fingers, a fuchsia pink pair of tights, sunflowers in the garden and travel to far flung colourful places.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

In relation to textiles this was further discussed with Hazel Stark, a natural dye focused practitioner who works alongside many high-street and haute couture brands developing and advising on colour. She talks of how there is a strong correlation between bright colours and ‘Fast Fashion’. Although the desire of the consumer is for colour there is also the need for dazzling shades to mask the cheap and poorquality nature of the garments. The pale and subtle tones that tend to work well with luxury markets don’t translate well on to ‘Fast Fashion’14 and its focus market. If colour is embraced and cherished by the poor and unrefined, or feared but exploited for monetary gain by the rich, why is that? Taussig imagines colour as alive, as a deity, as

“an organic entity that related intimately to the human form and mind.”xix

14. ‘Fast Fashion’ – a major driver of the damage and destruction caused by the Fashion and Textiles industry will be examined in more depth later in this paper.

So, is it a living breathing thing, a material, or a concept? There are, of course, defined materials that apply colour, or are coloured: a dye, a pigment or a paint. A pigment sits on top of a fabric, similar to a paint, whereas a dye or colourant, from natural or synthetic sources, has the ability to bond with the fibre on a chemical level, to become part of the material itself. In essence colour is a way of seeing light, which affects every material object in the universe. However, if the light is removed there is no colour, so is it an illusion, a disguise, or is it truth, part of every corporeal thing?

Introduction: Colour and its Significance

Figure 8. An image from a collection from the island of Pingelap. Sanna Wilde’s series of photographs utilisies infra-red to recreate what the islands inhabitants might see.

Colour could be a material, a way of seeing, or a living organism. It is both natural and unnatural. It can be manipulated by humans, but in its purest form is used and employed by nature to brighten, communicate, attract, repel. There is no person on the earth not affected by colour. Even when colour is not perceived in the expected manner, for example on the pacific islands of Fuur and Pingelap where all its inhabitants have achromatopsia,15 they still have a multitude of names for the shades of grey that they see, and so is this not colour but in another form?

“Colour is the most sacred element of all visible things... the mystery of colour lies in the fact that it evaded fate because, while vital to human existence, it could never be understood.”– Taussig. xx

15. Colour-blindness.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Figure 9. The Hindu Holi Festival is celebrated around the world. Bright colours mark the beginning of spring.

It cannot be denied that colour has importance, often linked to religion, symbology and spiritualism.xxi Furthermore Taussig talks of the trap of seeing colour as merely an add on, an addition to life instead of the stuff that life is made of. And it’s true, colour, in the modern day has become devalued.

Described by Taussig as “the brave new world of artifice created by chemical magic”, synthetic dyes16 meant the democratisation of colour. What was once exclusive to a few, became accessible to all, particularly in the western world. Prior to this, colour was a status symbol, a show of wealth and was reserved for the rich and privileged.17

16. industrialised in the late 19th century.

17. Tyrian purple, from the Murex molluscs, commanded a price higher than gold. Each sea snail produced only a drop of dye and it allegedly took 10,000 to produce 1g of dye. Regarded as the most expensive colour known to man, this shade was only for royalty. Famously a man was once killed for wearing purple by a roman emperor.

Introduction: Colour and its Significance

Figure 10. The vibrant renewable colour that natures makes without chemicals on a daily basis.

An unpopular opinion perhaps – the view of how colour should, in particular coloured cloth, be prized, cherished, valued. But then to be considered is the inescapable tension between value and accessibility. Should one not have access to colour because of social class or accumulated wealth?

18. of Colorifix, a microbial colour focused bio fabrication start-up.

It seems that the problems that this planet now encounters stem from that lack of care, or value. Orr Yarkoni,18 talks of how nature sustainably creates colour.xxiiThe rainforest showcases every bright and vibrant hue, but the rivers run clear, there is no pollution or damage as a result of this marvellous creation and use of colour.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

The colours found in nature are often replicated on the catwalk, in the shows of designers intended to make the consumer yearn for more. More clothing and more colour, to further fill their already overstuffed wardrobes. But what is rarely considered, is how this rainbow of colour, in garment form, joyous though it may be, leaves a deep wound on the ecological landscape of this planet the human population calls home.xxiii Colour is everywhere, it is being used constantly, in every industry and this certainly comes at a price; there is an environmental, ethical and human cost. Textile dye manufacture requires 2 million tonnes of chemicals per year, some of which, when not fully exhausted,19 are still ending up in natural bodies of water.xxiv Rutkin asks where the colour in garments originates; the answer is almost certainly petroleum-based dyes.xxv However, there is a colour revolution coming – or so the new start-ups, researchers and bio-designers would have you believe.

19. The term ‘exhaust’ means to have fully used up the chemical or dye as part of the process. This results in no trace of it in the discharged effluent.

Introduction: Colour and the Lack of Awareness

Figure 11. Waste water from a factory in Cairo.

Colour and the Lack of Awareness.

As a society there is a deep lack of connection with material and colour.xxvi

Even within the design community there is a separation from the realities of where dye comes from and the impact of its use. The focus is on its visible effect and function with little thought given to the consequences once applied, used and discarded. This directly affects the global ecosystem through the large amounts of textiles discarded daily, further escalating the already critical level ‘throw away’ consumption culture. Many designers may understand that a cloth or garment has been dyed, they may have a grasp of what the fibre content is and as a result which dye class may work best for specific colour needs, but still have no real concept of the actual ecological effect of this colour application.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

A major problem is that there are many disconnected parts in the supply chain. The way the dye was produced, processed, applied, fixed, or finished is just one aspect. There is also the delayed impact of the colour when the material is washed or discarded. Equally a synthetic dye does not biodegrade in the same way a natural fibre does so the chemicals present in the garment leech into the soil.xxvii There are consequences for the hands it passes through, and the ecosystems it ends up in. If a consumer had an accurate understanding of the exact amount of chemicals released into the natural water systems as a result of dyeing a single article of clothing, would they still buy it? If the data could actually be boiled down to a quantity, a location and the effect on a human life would they still be comfortable paying such an insignificant price for it? Or would they perhaps think twice, and assign it more value instead of wearing it 7-8 times, before throwing it away?xxviii ‘Fast Fashion’ is portrayed, now at least, as something inherently immoral which has brought pollution, waste and many other negative effects to the world. But it is in fact a continuation of a system of consumption that has

“Consumers throughout history have engaged in all manner of wildly unhealthy behaviours for the sake of fashion”Jennifer Wright. xxxiii

been at play all along.xxix The Fashion and Textiles supply chain is convoluted to say the least. A garment passes through so many hands, factories, processes and transport journeys that it is hard to trace even the fabric’s origin, much less it’s colour. Something that is known, however, is that if a dress is being sold for £420 ,xxx unless second hand, there is a guarantee that many of the people and environments involved are being exploited in the process. Especially when bearing in mind at each hand over in the manufacturing life-cycle, a profit is taken. Which leads back to the lack of relationship with this process, much of this information is unknown to, and is not an active concern of the end user. A prime example of the consumerism and the lack of empathy it promotes. 20. In July 2020

Introduction: Colour and the Lack of Awareness

Photo caption Fashion Revolution’s campaign ‘who made my clothes’ seeks to address this issue of empathy by bringing names and faces to the consumers attention.

Figure 12. Fashion Revolution’s campaign #ImMadeYourClothes aims to increase the awareness of the consumer regarding who made their clothes and the impact of the processes used.

This lack of connection with the real impact of colouring textiles is not unique to the consumer. Within the companies that commission them it is there too, at every level.21 For example

Just like the desire for an increased connection with the food that enters their bodies, it is time for consumers to start demanding the same kind of information about how the clothing they wear, in close contact with the skin, is produced.23 Some current dyes are still linked to a variety of medical conditions, from minor ailments like dermatitis to extremes like bladder cancers, which can affect, to different extents, both dyers and consumers alike.xxxi

21. Discussed with Hazel Stark. 22. Pantone developed a proprietary colour referencing system used widely in the Fashion and Textiles industry to ensure consistency in colours between design and supply.

23. This is being successfully addressed within the food industry, in part by the slow food movement with consumers taking a greater interest in the supply chain, the processes, eating local, understanding the effects of pesticides and animal rearing techniques and the chemicals that go into food. The same can be done for textiles.

the buyer who discards 100,000 metres of fabric because it is the wrong shade of red and doesn’t match the specified pantone chip.22 This is done out of sight of the realities, far removed from the consequences of these decisions to discard, to dead stock.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Figure 13. Natural dye colour palette by the modern nataural dyer.

Chapter 1: Processes of Colouring Textiles.

Chapter 1: Processes of Colouring Textiles - Traditional Natural Dyeing

Traditional Natural Dyeing.

Up until the invention of synthetic dye, the most famous example being ‘Mauvine’,24 the only way to colour textiles was through the use of what are now termed natural dyes. These are colourants extracted from plants, minerals, insects and molluscs.

As discussed earlier the use of natural dyes was a huge source of trade and revenue dating back to the ancient world.xxxiv Colour had been mechanised long before synthetic dyes were invented as a result of the Europeans colonising Asia and the new world and adopting much of their age-old knowledge and expertise when it came to dyeing and colouring fabric. 24. in 1856 by William Perkins

The use of animal and plant-based dye tracks back to the ancient world with evidence of the Egyptians recording dye recipes in the 3rd century AD.xxxv Although some now advocate a move back to traditional natural dyeing, it is no longer as simple as a step backwards. The process of natural dyeing itself, when implemented on an industrial scale can be just as damaging as more modern processes. Historically heavy metal mordants25 and other natural

chemicals that are toxic in large quantities, were used to achieve bright and fast colours.26xxxviEqually, if their use were to be scaled to the current industrial need large amounts of land, water, human and energy resources would be required. This necessity would directly compete with food and feed production, so cannot be sustainable in the long-term.

Furthermore, the cultivation of natural organic dyes is a long process. For example the Madder plant requires at least 20 months growth before the roots have sufficient quantities of pigment to be harvested for dyeing.27 xxxvii

25. A mordant is a dye fixative used to adhere dye onto fabrics by forming chemical bonds. 26. Fastness is the term used to characterise a dyes resistance to fading as a result of light, wash or friction. 27. Some growers leaving the roots to grow for up to 6 years as the quality and quantity of dye stuff matures over a longer period.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Figure 14. Colourful nature, in the form of the prickley pear which the Cochineal beetle lives on.

Historically the global natural dye trade relied heavily on cheap labour, provided through slavery or low paid indigenous workers. Even now, if the quantity of workers needed for industrial cultivation were paid fairly then the price of naturally dyed garments would be prohibitively high. As such their use tends to be reserved for small scale operations and the price points for products are much higher.

“Thousands of natural materials can produce glorious color. For example, the insects cochineal and lac produce pink, maroon and purple.” Kristine Vejarxlvi

Chapter 1: Processes of Colouring Textiles - Traditional Natural Dyeing

Figure 15. An example of the natural dye pastes created and printed by Susanne Stern.

In conversation, separately with both Riikka Räisänen, and Susanne Stern,28 the subject of cradle to cradle29

colour, or design for death, was discussed. If the colourants applied to the garment are completely natural, when the item is composted at the end of its natural life, the colour too can re-join the earth, and the soil from which it came. Perhaps it could even provide nourishment for the next wave of growth.

28. Natural dyer and textile designer based in Germany. 29. Cradle to cradle is a process designed to mimic natures circular systems of production. Any item at the end of its life gets recycled to form part of other products beginning whether from raw parts or compostable nutrients.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

“We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and respect” Aldo Leopold. Figure 16. Mother and daughter hand harvesting indigo in Dali, a village in China where traditional methods of growing and dyeing are still used.

Unfortunately, natural dyes can only produce part of the colour spectrum demand required by the industry – or at least in the estimation of many colour innovators.

30. Of the microbial tech firm PILI.

Jérémie Blache30 talks of how the crop production offers yields too low to meet the scale of industrial demand. Indigo produces 50KG of dye per hectare per year and 80,000 tonnes is needed to support the global denim market, therefore an area the size of Germany would be needed to grow it. This is unsustainable if only in terms of the deforestation it would requirexxxviii.

Chapter 1: Processes of Colouring Textiles - Traditional Natural Dyeing

Something to be challenged is the approach of overwhelming consumption of natural resources until they are depleted, of seeing the capacity of the natural world and exploiting that resource without thought for the longerterm consequences. It may seem logical that using plant and animal based natural resources to dye fabric is more beneficial than the use of synthetic chemical-based dyes, but this is not always the case. To consider the idea of abundance versus scarcity. Lichen was historically used to dye fabric, in the UK on the Isle of Harris, where it is still used on a small scale today to colour bespoke tweed. It’s properties as a natural dye were widely sought after31 but now, as a result in part of its overuse, and also increased levels of air pollution, it is not found abundantly enough to continue the practice of lichen dyeing at scale. A material that has been identified as being available in abundance, and possibly of use as a natural dye and new bio-material, is red algae.xxxix Amply available now, however if it is used in the quantities required to fulfil the need for coloured cloth or 31. In particular because the use of lichen is an example of one of the early semi synthetic dyes. The naturally occurring chemicals were successfully manipulated through exposure to air and ammonia to create a strong shade of purple.

Figure 17. Lichen used to dye Harris Tweed.

disposable ‘plastics’, soon enough it too may become endangered. Furthermore, there is the issue of what happens to all the surplus natural matter. For those unfamiliar with the process of natural dyeing, in most cases, a plant leaf, root or flower is heated, and the colour extracted. The end result is the colourant in solution and a quantity of excess natural fibre or waste.

32. Meaning to dye 1KG of fabric, 1KG of natural dye is needed. 33. Possible suggestions are fertiliser, bioplastics or material production.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Figure 18. A collection of textiles by Katrina Wilde. Processes used include natural dyeing with food waste, quilting and tufting with deadstock yarns.

Although biological, and therefore compostable and biodegradable, there is still a large quantity to deal with if used as part of a any large-scale production process, with some dye sources only producing a strong colour when dyed at a concentration of 100% weight of fibre.32 Plans would need to be made to repurpose this surplus.33 If subscribing to the use of natural dyes for ecological purposes then every effort must be made to make the system as

circular as possible, to step into the natural cycle of the earth. The use of natural dyes, proposes Katrina Wilde,34 means an acceptance of its properties, aesthetic and limitations. Variations in dye colour need to be embraced as although tonal groups are known, each dye pot varies. As Stern puts it, it has felt the wind, loved the sun and needed the rain. The colour is living so must be treated with appropriate compassion and empathy.35

34. Artist and natural dye practitioner. 35. Susanne Stern was interviewed as part of the research process for this dissertation.

Chapter 1: Processes of Colouring Textiles - Synthetic Dyeing

Synthetic Dyeing. “Colour Lies at the chemical heart of the cosmos.” Taussig. The invention of synthetic dyes made colour accessible to everyone, and the ability for all to wear emperors’ purple is a thing of beauty. That’s one side of the story. When organic synthetic dyes36

were invented they were formulated to mimic nature. Scientists identified compounds in the natural world and chemically recreated them. This ability to create every colour seen in nature and more was viewed as an amazing development, due to its promise of economical production and predictable supply, with little consideration of any negative consequence or future impact.

36. The use of the word organic comes from the fact that they are extracted and synthesized from crude oil, which is technically organic.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Figure 19. Blue planet - an image of single use plastic in the ocean.

It is comparable to the introduction of plastics, which also seemed at the time like a positive step resulting in a move away from being reliant on animal products. However, its benefits were then over exploited. Bakelite was replaced by single-use plastic and this resulted in millions of tonnes of nonbiodegradable plastic waste. The same could be said of petroleum-based dye.

Although in recent years the development of new dyes includes rigorous testing,37 there is still a huge legacy of pollution and environmental damage to deal with. Furthermore, just because new lower impact dyes,38 are available or in development, does not mean these are the ones currently being used in India, Bangladesh or China.

37. Confirms Harold Freeman. 38. which use less water and release less chemical effluent.

Chapter 1: Processes of Colouring Textiles - Synthetic Dyeing

Figure 20. Local foragers gathering pericón (a type of marigold) and native tree lichen for natural dyeing in Oaxaca. The locations and timings of yields of dye plants is generation knowledge.

As mentioned earlier, something not often considered is the loss of traditional and locational dye knowledge. At the height of the natural dye trade Europe had acquired much of its knowledge from indigenous communities.xl Every area, tribe and locality had developed their own set of processes and skills when it came to dyeing fabrics with natural matter available in their own landscapes.

Whether it meant adding chalk to combat acidic water sources or a multi-step process needed to get pink from Safflower,39 this knowledge

differed by locality and was passed down, often only verbally from generation to generationxli. India was a huge producer of coloured cotton that used a multitude of plantbased dyes.

39. Carthamus tinctorius, a thistle like plant whose petals are used as a natural dye.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Figuer 21. Commonly used dyes stain the skin vivid colours more easily than natural dyes.

Whereas in contrast, when looking in the present day at the dye factories the vast majority use only synthetic dyes. Much of the knowledge was lost and this in part is owed to the introduction of synthetic dyes, and the demand for predictable production of more, and cheaper dyes. Something that cannot be feasibly done with natural dyes. The petroleum-based dyes used for the majority of the clothes made each year, are made from or easily break down into toxic chemicals. However, they are widely used because they perform highly in regard to bright hues, fastness, price, speed and consistency.

They always outperform traditional natural dyes which are labour, land and time intensive, often inconsistent and in most cases still deliver a more limited colour palette and in smaller quantities. ‘Fast Fashion’, and the global demand for such a high quantity of clothing has meant even more significant quantities of synthetic dyes and the consequences are mounting.

Chapter 1: Processes of Colouring Textiles - Synthetic Dyeing

Richard Blackburnxlii states that, since the

Natsai Audrey Chieza in her 2017 TED talk notes the dependency on fossil fuels that we currently have. In a way “tethered to this valuable resource system”.xlv There is a need to develop alternatives systems to break this cycle of reliance on the synthetic, the polluting chemicals and processes used today.

40. DyeCoo’s processes are used for the dyeing of polyester whereas the processes developed by ColorZen are used for Cotton and claim to eliminate 90% of water use and the need for synthetic chemicals. 41. A Colour chemistry Professor based in North Carolina. 42. Auxiliary chemicals are needed to ensure proper fixation of dye to the fibre. 43. Azo dyes are a group of synthetic dyes made of a

chemical azo group. Studies have found they are used for up to 70% of the global dye industry as a result of the ability to dye bright colours at low temperatures.

turn of the 20th Century the dye industry has been driven by function rather than available material, which is clearly visible when considering the over exploitation of the earth and its resources. This further links with the dye industry’s vast consumption of water, partly due to the needs of synthetic dye processes. Several companies have developed methods of waterless dyeing, for example DyeCoo,40 who instead utilise liquid CO2.xliii The Dyes used are still from a synthetic base, which has inherent problems, but these processes have the potential to be only a short-term solution to the issue of water conservation. Both Harold Freeman41 and Richard Blackburn talk about innovation in the organic synthetic dye domain seeing scientist developing dyes that exhaust at a higher percentage, use less auxiliaries42 and require less water. This still doesn’t change the fact that Azo dyes43 are still commonly used in India, Bangladesh and China, even though the majority are banned worldwide due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic properties.xliv

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Chapter 2: The Control of Colour and Resulting Damage.

Figure 22. A landfill site filled with clothing.

Chapter 2: The Control of Colour and Resulting Damage

“We’ve reached a time in history where we can choose to press forward… exploit, disfigure and even destroy [the world we live in], or else we can figure out a way of mastering our drive for mastery.” Taussiglxxxiii

The Fashion and Textiles industry has a multitude of problems: pollution, low wages and bonded workers,44 the exploitation of women and children,45 the premature disposal of garments and lack of recycling, pesticides, plastic use, reliance on petroleum resources, transportation of goods and resources and it goes on. Some issues are more visible to the consumer than others. Even now in 2020, with a higher awareness of the polluting and exploitative nature of the Fashion and Textiles industry compared with just a few years ago, there is still not much of an understanding of the application of colourants and their contribution to the global problem. It’s likely that people aren’t aware, or as Taussigxlvii argues, colour is often taken for granted, not thought of unless it offends or harms. In this case the application of colour is in fact detrimental, both for the environment and the people in contact with it.xlviii

44. modern day slavery. 45. And vast gender pay gaps

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Figure 23. Image of water polluted by dye in China.

From the extraction and production of dye; to the workers who process and apply the dyes; to the environments that the effluent is discharged into; to the people who wear the garments and absorb chemicals through their skin; back to the people living in the areas where all the discarded garments are shipped.46 The process of colouring textiles is not often the main topic of conversation on many of the sustainability panels.47 There is a lot of talk of cotton, the amount of water or pesticides it uses, that organic is better.

46. Likely developing countries with limited infrastructure for recycling and proper degradation. 47. For example, the sustainability discussion panels at the yearly ‘Future Fabrics Expo’ or the ‘BioFabricate summit’.

Or of how synthetic fabrics like polyester are estimated to survive over 200 years in landfill.xlix But the same issues of pollution and degradation, to someone familiar with dyes and colours are so very obvious. The intention of this dissertation is to further highlight this information to the reader.

Chapter 2: The Control of Colour and Resulting Damage

In India, a high population and significant levels of poverty49 put a great stress

Figure 24. Image of water polluted by dye in Tirupur, India.

Even the most efficient of petroleumbased dyes48 are not fully absorbed during the dyeing process.lThis leaves between 5% and 40% of the dyes and chemicals used to be discharged from the system. As a result of the majority of dye processing happening in countries like India, China, Bangladesh, where regulations are still more lax than in Europe, these chemicals still end up in the fresh water supply, the ocean, in rivers where the fish die, and in contaminated paddy fields which support local communities.li

48. Or auxiliary chemicals

on water resources which are further impacted by the scale of the dye industry which operates there.lii The Chinese Ministry of Supervision published a report in 2012 that stated that in recent years there were approximately 1,700 significant water pollution incidents in China per year. This caused an estimated 60,000 premature deathsliii. A further report published by the Chinese water authority stated that up to 40% of China’s rivers were seriously polluted after having 75 billion tonnes of sewage and industrial wastewater discharged into them. In a country described as ‘water needy’ this has dramatic consequences for the human population who require fresh drinking water.liv

49. Up to 52%

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

‘It is clear that the environmental impacts of the fibre, textile and clothing industry are great, the need for change is urgent, and meeting the challenge will require both a social science and natural science approach.” LeHew, Armstrong,

The true reach of the fashion and textile industry’s impact is astonishing.50 The supply chains and sheer quantity of processes involved, the hands and locations that products and resources pass through are so complex that it becomes incredibly challenging to understand and track data in order to apply change. Isabelle Laurencin,51 states that fashion is so very unsustainable because each step of the process, each usage is done in an unhealthy way. For example, cotton is grown using a huge amount of water and pesticides, polyester requires 70 million barrels of oil52 per year to produce, and then comes the dyeing process. 43 million tonnes of chemicals are used annually to produce textileslv and most garments are blended fibre which makes them difficult and costly to recycle. It is estimated that 80 billionlvi garments are produced world-wide each year and a significant proportion – estimated 300,000 tonnes in the UK alone– end up in landfill.53 lvii So, Laurencin says, the whole Fashion and Textiles industry needs to ‘pivot’. Additionally, as much as a considerable proportion of the damage is happening during production, there is still harm imposed post purchase.

50. It reaches agriculture, (both animal and plant), petroleum, forestry, construction, mining, shipping and manufacturing. 51. of the ‘Fashion For Good’ incubator at Plug and Play 52. Or 11,129,110,645 litres.

53. Brands like H&M, who say 56% of current fabrics used by them are recycled or from sustainable sources, are aiming for 100% by 2030. Even with this promise there is still implications from the recycling process. Recycled fabric requires bleaching and removal of dyes if at all possible. Equally there is a tendency to green wash with brands claiming a garment is recycled when only 10% of the overall fibre is from recycled sources.

Hiller & Anderson – 2012.lxxxiv

Chapter 2: The Control of Colour and Resulting Damage

Figure 25. A Kayayei at Kantamanto market.

When considering the quantity of garments being put into landfill, the majority of this is at the choice of the consumer. It is the consumer that buys a garment and after an average of five weeks, discards it.lviii Many consumers think that if unwanted garments are given to charity shops or recycling services then the disposal is guilt free. Unknown to most is that only around 10% of these garments are resold in the country of donationlix, the vast majority instead end up exported to nations like Ghana, where they are resold at markets similar to Kantamanto, the second largest resale hub in West Africa.54lx 54. Personal experience has shown the damage that second hand clothes can have on existing industry in developing countries. In Haiti, after the many hurricanes, aid poured in from the USA, beneficial in the short term. Long term, locals cannot start businesses making/selling garments because so many second-hand garments get shipped into Haiti per week. The economy struggles to recover because so much is

“There is an excess of excess and the more we oversaturate second-hand clothing markets like Kantamanto, the more we devalue clothing in terms of real and nominal value. All brands… end up on the floor of Kantamanto soaking up mud and printed with footsteps. Very little is precious because the supply never stops.” Liz Ricketts. lxxxv

donated, no one can earn a wage when the locals don’t buy from local producers or businesses. It is a vicious cycle of destruction. A healthier solution would be for the developed nations, providing aid, to purchase in country, and employ Haitian only workers to complete task, where ever possible.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Figure 26. Mountains of surplus garments in landfill.

When considering the impact of Fashion and Textiles on the planet, it is a picture of mountains of fabric in landfills, poison leeching into the earth, debris floating in the seas, chemicals choking rivers, and over consumption destroying lives. Three of the rivers around Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, have been declared biologically dead due to the devastating levels of polluted effluent discharged into them from surrounding fabric dye and finishing factories.lxi Abigail Dillen,55 describes the pollution

55. vice president of litigation for climate and energy at EarthJustice.

caused by the Fashion and Textiles industry as subtle, less obvious than that of the oil or energy sectors. It’s not as upfront as an oil tanker spill but it’s impact should not be ignored because the multitude of small actions add up to catastrophe.lxii

The majority of environmental damage from the processing of textiles happens in the dyeing and finishing stage, as a result of the sheer number and quantity of chemicals employed, as well as the vast amounts of water required.lxiii

Chapter 2: The Control of Colour and Resulting Damage

Remarkedly it is believed by some that rivers and mountains should be endowed with the same rights as humans56 and that this abuse of the

environment should be taken as seriously as an abuse of human life.lxiv Although a river may not feel pain in the same way a human does, it’s destruction affects many lives as a source of drinking water, water for crops and cattle.

The current dye methods utilised in the majority of the industry, are heavily reliant on petroleum-based dyes and as such use a significant amount of water. Standard dye practice utilises an average ratio of 30:1, water to fibre, however although some factories use far more than this, there have been steps in recent years, by major companies such as Huntsman and DyStar, to develop dyes which require less water volume and which exhaust to a higher level.

56. The Whanganui River, revered by the Māori in new Zealand was the first river to be given full legal rights of a living entity, in March 2017, with and also as a result of this ruling, the Ganges, sacred to over 1 billion Indians granted the same rights later that month. Both these legal actions mean that polluting or damaging the river carry the same weight as harming a human life.

Figure 27. A woman washes her clothes in the polluted Buriganga river in Dhaka.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

“Clean water is both essential to the planet’s ecosystems and fundamental to people’s wellbeing. It is a basic human right.” Greenpeace National regulations require all wastewater exiting factories be filtered and treated, however such directives seem to be less enforced, or less consistent in countries like India, Bangladesh and China where the majority of the dye industry is currently placed. Some factories run water pollution control equipment only when an inspection is expected as this is seen as a non-essential production cost.lxv As a result of industrial contaminants entering waterways, aquatic life is endangered, farmland is compromised and ultimately people are denied drinkable water in areas where fresh water is already a scarcitylxvi.

Water is not an issue solely in terms of how pollution affects the environment, but also how that pollution, and resulting lack of fresh water affects the human population in those areas. Banglxvii talks of how the processing workers suffer as a result of consistent contact and exposure to the chemicals used to dye cloth with conditions with symptoms such as the peeling of the skin being common.

Chapter 2: The Control of Colour and Resulting Damage

There are many significant statistics that are used widely in sustainability communication, in campaigns and reports. For example: Fashion and Textiles causes almost 20% of the worlds water pollution.57 These statistics get cited and reference by many reputable sources, yet when a thorough investigation was made for EcoTextileNewslxviii, with attempts to trace the primary information sources, the chain was found to be broken and often the original information is untraceable which brings its validity into question.

“There is a need for good data and analysis, and this is expensive. But it won’t get done if the public is not demanding it.” Rebecca Burgess – Fibre Shedlxxxvi

Every effort has been made to verify the validity of statistics and sources used within this dissertation. Wicker talks of how there is a problem with the lack of data in regard to Fashion and Textiles pollution in general. The type of studies to collect the data needed would be costly and it seems that the scientific community look down on the Fashion industrylxix. Roosen handles it well by saying, when talking of petroleum-based dyes and their impact, “we suspect: the results are catastrophic for health and the environment.” 57. Most reports cite ‘the state of the apparel sector – 2015 special report’ by Maxwell, McAndrew and Ryan for this reference. However, Maxwell et al cite ‘Raybin, A, 2009, ‘Water pollution and textiles industry’. Research has not found any record of this report, nor a person therefore the validity of this statistic is questioned but not necessarily deemed incorrect. Logical conclusions make it likely to be true, however when not based on concrete fact it can be easily

argued against.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Many of the references and statistics painted as fact are actually logical conclusions,58 and they are likely true, but as yet unproven, so perhaps it would be more truthful to make that clear. While admitting that a lot of the data may not be accurate, this does not change the fact that the Fashion and Textiles industry is still one of the most resource59 intensive industries globally. Consider the amount of travel involved; fabrics grown, spun, woven, dyed and constructed in different locations, then transported to the shops to be sold. This all takes fuel to transport, added to the amount of chemicals and human labour required for each manufacturing process.lxx Blache, states that for all the billions of garments created each year, 2 million tonnes of dye are needed. Additionally, in order to produce just 1 Kg of dye: 100Kg of petroleum; 9Kg of other chemicals including heavy solvents; and 1,000 litres of water are required. That’s not even taking into account the amount of energy involved in the process, both from the extraction of oil, processing into a dye and the dyeing itself.lxxi

58. many have been drawn from joining the dots in smaller sections of data, as explained by Lucy Siegle. 59. human and natural.

Figure 28. A container ship similar to those transporting garments and resources for th Fashion and Textiles industry around the world.

It’s not just what, but where. Manufacturing has been outsourced to countries where the labour is cheaper, but the infrastructure is often less developed. These countries have the dirtiest power systems, so not only is production outsourced, but also the pollution of the water, air, and by energy used.lxxii

Chapter 2: The Control of Colour and Resulting Damage

This is simple economics, retailers want to optimise profits, so they go where the supply and labour is cheaper, however the question that needs to be asked is whether this is ethical? It may be true that the cost of living in developing countries is less, but underpaying workers, unsafe working conditions, bonded workers and child labour are just a few of the issues facing the garment work forcelxxiii.

Figure 29. Child labour and squalid working conditions are still implemented in some fashion supply chains.

60. The definition of slavery in the 21st century is when one person obtains or holds another person in compelled service. This includes victims of human trafficking, bonded workers and coerced servitude. 61. Ethiopia, India, the Philippines, Nepal, North Korea and Vietnam.

Lucy Siegle talks of how people imagine that the link between the production and treatment of cloth, and slavery has ceased to exist .60 She states that working conditions outlawed in the west years ago, are common in the developing countries where the army of cut/make/trim workers are employed.lxxiv A 2018 a report found evidence of forced, and child labour utilised in the Fashion and Textiles industry in at least 9 countries.61lxxv

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

If a brand won’t pay beyond a meagre amount, in order to make a profit, the dye houses cannot then invest in innovation or the new more sustainable methods. Like with most things, it comes down to money and its movement through the supply chain.63

Figure 30. Garment construction factories like those used to create fast and cheap fashion trends.

So much of the problem comes from the huge global demand for ‘Fast Fashion’.62 Blackburnlxxvi talks of how the blame doesn’t solely lie at the door of the dye houses, or even the dye manufacturers. The retailers and brands also play a significant part in this issue. The creation of ‘Fast Fashion’ has vastly exacerbated the consequences of these processes and the dye houses are still at the mercy of what the brands want, and how much they are willing to pay.

62. This phrasing comes from the pace at which garments go from design to availability in shops – Zara reportedly aims for 15 days. This also translates into the rate at which said garments are often consumed and disposed of, with an estimated 10,000 items of clothing sent to landfill ever 5 minutes in the UK.

“Fast Fashion and the availability of ‘value’ clothes has led to rapidly increasing rates of consumption and has changed our relationship with clothes. Fast-to-consume clothes are more throwaway, less cherished and less personal.” Kate Fletcher.lxxxvii

63. Notably, the workers who produce the products are the least valued, most mistreated, most underpaid however they are the backbone of the whole industry.

Chapter 2: The Control of Colour and Resulting Damage

The consumers desire for large quantities of cheap clothing has resulted in a slew of badly made, garments that are considered disposable.lxxvii For example, if a dress is being sold in a high street store for £15, how much money was expended on dyeing the fabric? As has been seen during the Covid-19 pandemic, which induced a global shut down of all high-street stores, the reliance on ‘Fast Fashion’ leaves an entire group of workers and their dependants vulnerable to death and starvation.64 So, if the real social impact of colouring textiles is on those working within the supply chain, industry and consumers should be questioning, where do these invisible people live? What is the effect of the work on their health and well-being? After all, is a life not worth more than a dress or a pair of jeans?65

64. The ‘Clean Clothes Campaign’ has been highlighting the mistreatment of fashion supply chain workers as large companies like Zara and Arcadia refuse to pay for stock already produced in India and Bangladesh. Many companies are not planning to pay invoices until the autumn which leaves factories unable to pay workers. Additionally, more contracts cannot be taken on because the warehouses are full of stock that these companies won’t accept. For workers

“Consumers, retailers, designers and brands have a responsibility to the workers who make our fashion, but we’ve closed our eyes to a back story of exploitation and dangerous conditions.” Lucy Sieglelxxxviii

on a daily wage this could easily result in genuine starvation. 65. A conversation with another textile’s practitioner, Emma McGinn in 2017, about her travels in India highlighted that there are workers in the dye houses that are aware that contact with the dye chemicals and processes reduce their life expectancy. However, they have no real choice but to continue in order to financially support their families and feed their children.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

In 2017 the estimated annual value of the global Fashion and Textiles industry was £2 trillion,lxxviii with the world is in a state of ‘peak stuff’ with people owning 100% more stuff than 30 years ago.lxxix Apparel in so many cases is thought of as throwaway, with consumers regularly buying multiples from the cheaper end of the spectrum e.g. Primark – because they know and accept that the product quality degrades quickly.lxxx

Laurencinlxxxi again raises a valid point – the cost of garments needs to increase because right now no one is paying what they should, the brands or the consumers. The direct result of this insufficient payment is an unjust wage for the workers and companies choosing to cut corners by not paying to treat their chemical waste.lxxxii So, if done fairly the price goes up, for the consumer definitely, but perhaps more could be absorbed by the shareholders of retailers and clothing brands.66

66. Philip Green – owner of the Arcadia group is worth an estimated $2.2 Billion. In contrast to the life of a Fashion and Textiles supply chain worker, up to 87% are not paid the minimum wage, and the minimum wage is deemed less than half of what a living wage should be.

“Cheap clothes are not cheap. Someone always has to pay for them. And that someone is a worker” Kalpona Akterlxxxix

Sustainability comes at a price; however, because the aim is to make it accessible, conceivably the answer is to change the structure of the supply chain. By continuing to support ‘Fast Fashion’, and buy from companies that continuously exploit and pollute, the consumer is perpetuating this cycle of toxicity. Although fashion is easy to dismiss as harmless, or frippery filled, the social and environmental impact can be seen so easily if only a closer look is taken, hidden in plain sight but often wilfully ignored. In a society led by consumerism it becomes increasingly difficult to change lane and question motives and patterns of thinking and buying.

Chapter 2: The Control of Colour and Resulting Damage

“Unless we as fashion-lovers and consumers assert ourselves, the industry will take the path of least resistance. The combination of the global recession and the inevitable price rises of major ingredients of the fashion supply chain, such as oil and cotton, will see big players, the multinational brands and giant retailers that control the UK high street, become even more ruthless in grabbing their margin. The victims

will be the producers, the garment workers, and eventually you and me, as design and quality are sacrificed.”xc In 2011 Siegle writes of her fear and this, believes the author, is exactly what has happened in the 9 years since that was first published.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Chapter 3: Developing Systems of Colouration.

Figure 31. Fabric dyed with bacterial pigment cultivated by Natsai Audrey Chieza.

Chapter 3: Developing Systems of Colouration

“Colour, made in microbes, designed by humans.” PILI cviii

Figure 32. A petri dish containing pigment-producing bacteria.

Organic chemistry aimed to synthesize natural colour compounds, and it did this successfully, albeit with the consequence of pollution and damage to both the environment and the human population. Chapter 2 discussed the belief that a return to traditional natural dyes cannot be achieved without exacting an alternate path of destruction however, plants, minerals and insects are not the only living organisms in the natural world which create colour. For some, it is the microbial world

of bacteria, yeast, fungi and algae that holds the answer. PILI,67 believe the answer to the petrochemical induced colour crisis is living in the ecosystem in the soil beneath our feet. The microbial world holds infinite possibilities for the bioproduction of colour, which several companies, researchers and innovators are beginning to explore and utilise. It is believed by many researchers that with a bit of ‘creative tinkering’, a ‘production partnership’ with microbial life is capable of producing every colour and shade of pigmentxci. Merja Penttilä,68xcii believes that synthetic biology, and the processes of taking genes that create colour from every living thing, will enable, in the future, the safe production of any colour in ‘simple’ microbes, at industrial scale.

67. the Paris based bio design start-up. 68. another researcher at the BioColour consortium.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Figure 33. Test tubes of microbila pigments.

PILI describe their main driver to be producing eco-friendly colours and processes. Their starting point was the problem of using fossil fuels as a source. They could not conceive a way to completely eradicate all risk of damage and exploitation when the essence of the process relied on the energy and pollution intensive extraction of crude oil. This led them to go in another direction, instead looking at how nature produces colour in its smallest forms. Yarkoni, talks of how nature creates the brightest of colours with no water pollution or environmental damage,

and at Colorifix, the UK based research company he heads up, they aim to work with nature, not appropriating or mimicking in a synthetic way. PILI’s ‘cellular factories’ are biodegradable, use less energy, no petroleum and don’t create polluting by-products. The bacteria produce the same chemicals that are being synthetically reproduced in industry,69 but they do it naturally, without the need for toxic solvents, whilst also being completely non-toxic and biodegradable. In most cases the microbes produce pigments as a secondary metabolite.70

69. for example: Violacein, Alizarin and Actinorhodin. 70. A secondary metabolite is a compound which is not required for reproduction or growth of an organism.

Chapter 3: Developing Systems of Colouration

There is not a complete understanding of why this happens but companies like PILI and Colorifix aim to modify these metabolite pathways in order to produce pigment efficiently on a large scale. The aim is to make the production of bio-dyes part of a circular system, working in harmony with the natural ecosystem, adding to and becoming part of it, rather than exploiting resources. This is reflected in the aims to modify the current bacterial feedstock away from sugars to agricultural surplus so that the processes can be further embedded into a circular system.xciii

The idea is that the colours come from nature so at the end of their useful lives, they can return to nature without harming the planet. It seems that now is the time for innovation in this area, and the amount of funding awarded to PILI through various start up grants further supports this.

Blache talks of the recent years of ethical and regulatory pressures resulting in an increased industry interest in sustainability innovations. Campaigns such as Fashion Revolution’s

Figure 34. Microbial pigments stored after extraction.

#WhoMadeMyClothes and #SlowFashion have meant that consumers are becoming increasingly more aware of the need to question how their garments are made, who made them and what they are made of.xcivOne statistic referenced is that in the production of just 1Kg of dye, 26Kg of CO2 is createdxcv. Unquestionably pollution caused by the application of colour is a global problem, so a global solution is needed.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

being used to produce the colour. To create and nurture a harmonious two-sided relationship rather than a destructive one sided one. But how does the consumer feel about this new way of working with microorganisms? After all, the consumer view of bacteria, mould, yeast and fungi, for many years has been unfavourable.

Figure 35. A petri dish growing bacteria at Gingko Bioworks.

PILI consider their bacteria co-creators and talk of how they love, respect and feed them, looking after their needs and collaborating on the project of living renewable colour. Chieza also talks of collaborating with organic life, in her case S. Coelicolor, that lives in the soil in community with other organisms.xcvi So again, the answer to the current problems of damage by colour could be to live and work in symbiosis with the natural systems

“We need to stop being afraid of bacteria and microscopic living things: most of them are vital to our health, our own bodies host billions of them that help us digest, protects our skin and regulate all sorts of vital parameters.” Marie-Sarah Adenis71cix

71. Of PILI.

Chapter 3: Developing Systems of Colouration

Figure 36. Bioreactors are manned by robots.

The way that natural organisms engineer life is far more sophisticated than anything that humans have been able to design, and they are able to do these feats at scale. The discipline of synthetic biology is emerging, and it seeks to customize the functionality of living systems.72 xcvii Chieza talks of fermentation as part of a sophisticated cycle efficiently redistributing energy.

72. A project by PILI created an ID for each bacterium studied. Bacteria have always had names, now they also have a map, a design signature, because just as each bacterium produces its own colour, they each have a unique way of growing across a fabric which is quite individually specific.

“Fermentation, when harnessed by humans, [is] an advanced technological toolkit for our survival.” XCVII

It’s about whole ecosystems interacting – so if it’s taken out of nature and into a human controlled, industrial setting how does this work?

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Figure 37. Bacteria pigment growth experiments by Natsai Audrey Chieza during the Gingko Bioworks residencey.

Surely there is potential that the involvement of humans, using these processes for gain will break this cycle and introduce discord as has happened so many times throughout history. Chieza states that the use of fermentation could radically change industrial production,73 and in particular the production of colour. Currently the development and use of microbial pigments is extremely costly, and the companies working in this area are small start-ups – says Michelle Shu74 - so much more funding for research and development will be required.xcviii

Not only do costs need to be lowered, but appropriate raw materials need to be identified so that production does not compete with food or feed. In an ideal scenario, the raw materials would be surplus from another process, further reducing both cost and environmental impact.

73. notedly it has already been used successfully for years to produce drugs like penicillin. 74. of Tinctorium, the sustainable denim biotech company.

75. referring to where the dyeing actually happens. Not in the decision making of brands in the west but in the dye houses in countries such as India, Bangladesh and China. For brands it may be about image and ethics as well as money, but the matter is more complicated for businesses operating in still developing nations.

Chapter 3: Developing Systems of Colouration

Guillaume Boissonnat talks of how, at PILI, sustainability doesn’t just mean originating from nature. It means a scalable solution, for global industry, without harm for the environment, accessible to all, but also high performing, as in it is comparable to the synthetic dyes, in efficiency and shades achieved. The truth is there, if performance is not achieved, then industry75

will never, can never, adopt these sustainable technologies.xcix

As a designer the opportunity to design the materials being worked with do not come often, says Aleks Gosiewski,76 however in textiles especially, they foundational to what is being created. Typically, a designer uses a process or material but has no say in where they come from, or how the material or colour is madec. It would seem that synthetic biology and bio-fabrication, this centuries toolkit, allow designers to do that, to step back and consider, then lean in and get involved in the complete process. It enables them to interact with the whole process and enact positive change when working from a place of sustainable and ethical ideals. 76. of AlgiKnit, a biomaterials company integrating textile design and production with science with an emphasis on algae.

Figure 38. Algiknit are growing biodegradable yarn from kelp.

“Microbes are the factories of the future” Suzanne Lee cx

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

“Using Bio Design in fashion is so much more sustainable than conventional methods. We’re at the beginning of an extremely important revolution. This is legit!” Paola Antonelli cxi

Working with micro-organisms is working with an invisible world says Adenis.ci She talks of how this delights her as a designer and biologist, radically transforming the production landscape. Now as a designer it is possible to grow materials, and colour. She talks of how it is not to tame this other world but to guide it and communicate in the timeless and universal language of colour.cii Andy Gonzalez,77 talks of the aim to create a platform for designers to use so biology is embedded from the beginning – the need for new ways of thinking, not just working backwards and then applying sustainability, but embedded sustainability from the initial idea generation.ciii One of the problems with introducing these new innovations is that the people interested in them are not the ones who use themciv. Garment construction companies contract out their dyeing to dye houses who often are not interested in sustainability but in the necessity of making money. So, the communication comes in talking to factories in India or Bangladesh, where there has been little innovation in 50 years, about new tech. Certainly for successful introduction there is a need for comparability in price and in performance. 77. of Gingko Bioworks

Chapter 3: Developing Systems of Colouration

“As Fossil fuels give way to renewable energy, we need to find new materials [or colour] systems that are not petroleum based” Natsai Audrey Chieza.cxii

Figue 39. Mountains of ‘recycled’ clothes.

In these countries, where there is a high level of poverty, the immediate social aspect perhaps- the need for jobs and provision- is at this point more important than long-term environmental sustainability. Arguably this vicious cycle perpetuates the broken system where factories providing jobs and income for many families, damage beyond repair the environments those families inhabit. Short term survival versus long-term thriving is a heart-breaking choice. The complex supply chain can make it difficult – a pilot with a brand may be agreed but often the progress stalls at contact with the dye house, who work

with multiple brands meaning changing the process or system is much more costly and complicated. Again, Chieza talks of future systems being biological, and the essential importance of their design and construction. New systems must not further prolong and perpetuate the destructive legacies of chemical reliance but instead a method of living within this planets boundaries and capabilities must be discovered. There is a need to work in accord with the efficiency of nature, who’s systems automatically recycle and replenish.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

In conversation with Räisänen the need to look at the bigger picture was discussed. It is not enough to just develop new non-toxic dyes, new processes for applying dyes or systems of treating waste effluent. Looking back at times when new systems have been introduced previously, plastic or synthetic dyes, they were considered problem solving solutions. The invention of plastic alleviated the over reliance on animal products as the invention of synthetic dye relieved one element of the heavy toll colour extracted from the natural world. However, years down the line the real impact can now be seen. Plastics are choking the oceanscv and synthetic chemicals are poisoning the water systems in the countries where they are used in large quantities.cvi So therefore, what must be learnt from this, from the history of design and production, is that a closer look must be taken before introducing any new process or system. If colours produced by microbes are to be used, what is the end result? They may output colourants in quantity but consideration to what else is produced must be given, and to the disposal or reuse once colour is extracted.

Räisänen and Penttilä state that any shade and brightness of colour should be possible with microbial produced colourantscvii. Räisänen is very clear that the aim of the consortium is to find solutions that are environmentally healthy. Unlike the introduction of synthetic dyes, they are focusing heavy on toxicology studies and studying potential negative impacts before attempting use for industry.

“When you’re talking about replacing something made with petrochemicals, the production process has to be very efficient in order to compete with the scale and cost of current processes” Christina Agapakis cxiii.

Chapter 3: Developing Systems of Colouration

Figure 40. Garments dyed with living pigment producing bacteria by Natsai Audrey Chieza.

When thinking of future developments, whether in the near or far future the possibilities are endless. The introduction of microbial dyes could mean colour has the potential to live and change with the body. Speculatively, the possibilities seem limitless, living colour could be programable. Perhaps garments may change colour and pattern as tastes and desires evolves. Could garments evolve like the natural changes of human skin?

Fabric ages, it gets softer, the texture changes and evolves perhaps so to could colour. If specific colour can be engineered into a microbe there may be potential to program the movement of colour and manipulate alternate structures of growth to create patterns. They could perhaps imbue medicinal qualities or protect and nourish bodies while also providing colour.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Chapter 4: The Need for a Shift in Attitudes Towards Colouring Textiles.

With a resurgence in the consumer desire for natural, sustainable, biodegradable and environmentally compatible design comes the question, is there need for a shift in attitude toward colour and the colouration of textiles? With synthetic dyes came the ability to control the tone and depth of shade and in most cases the fastness of the dye. Petroleum-based dyes, while not always 100% light or colour-fast, when used successfully are considered efficient and effective, both economically and technically. They allow the dyer to almost completely control the colour achieved on any given fabric. One reason fastness is important when it comes to dyeing garments is that if a dye is not wash, light or rub fast it will leech chemicals and colour into the water during washing, and it may rub off on other garments or the skin.cxiv

Chapter 4: The Need for a Shift in Attitudes Towards Colouring Textiles

One view is that there needs to be a move away from the expectation of colour to never evolve. Even synthetic dyes fade and often this is a significant factor in the choice to dispose of a garment.cxv Clothes are used to express oneself, as is colour – but this fascination with exacting shades – the need for fire engine red instead of crimson red,78how could this desire change? Is there scope to choose the shades and tones worn as part of a healthy system? The conversation with Wilde, turns to her belief that the practice of dyeing large quantities of fabric will never be sustainable, no matter how low impact or non-toxic the dyes are. The root of a Madder plant historically used79 to dye fabric a vibrant red, can be carcinogenic in large quantities.cxvi The practice of dyeing consumes so much water, with billions of litres of fresh water going into factories and dye houses, and exiting the other side unusable for farmland, grazing cattle or drinking water.

78. Promoted in part by consultation firms like ‘Color me beautiful’ who provide a service to tell consumers exactly which shades and colours suit them. 79. since ancient times by the Egyptians.

Wilde raises the point that there are vast quantities of coloured fabric already in existence, already in the system, so perhaps a system of using what already exists is the way forward. Wilde’s artistic creation processes involve working in harmony with the natural matter that produces the colour. She is deeply embedded in the process and although she has a depth of knowledge of tonal groups and the colours that each dye source creates, each time the results are different. Clients who employ her rarely request a specific pantone colour, unlike the majority of current brands, and by employing her specifically, they are asking for unique products, every item different with an element of the process and natures fingerprint upon each one. This is in contrast to the way synthetic dyes are considered by the large brands, where there is a demand for complete control and consistency.80

This idea of accepting and embracing the natural qualities of the materials and fibres to create colour is an attractive one. A shift away from bending colour and nature to the will of humanity but instead co-operative working.

80. In conversation with a designer at Tommy Hilfiger it was mentioned that the buyers discarded 100,000m of a fabric one season because it was not the right pantone shade.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Another topic discussed was education, for all levels. The education of both designers, industry buyers and consumers on how to communicate about colouring textiles. As an example, most consumers know that indigo dyed denim changes over time. When jeans are sold, they often carry labels that warn that each product is unique and will carry variation. It will fade over time. As it’s rubbed against things or washed the dye will weaken and transfer. This is accepted because consumers are well educated about the process of wearing indigo dyed products and this can be replicated with other types of dyeing. When it comes to the way forward there are many options to be considered. There is scope to have a system where clothing can be redyed. If cellulose garments are made with cellulose thread and removable fastenings, potentially they could be re-dyed quite easily. Or potentially is it better to accept and embrace the natural ageing process.

Figure 41. Vivienne Westwood’s SS19 collection - Buy Less, Dress Up.

“Buy less, choose well and make it last” – Vivienne Westwood. cxvii

Chapter 4: The Need for a Shift in Attitudes Towards Colouring Textiles

The concept of investment in durable fashion,cxviii or ‘buying the story’,81 cxix

is one where consumers could return to a time of buying only what is needed or loved, items with longevity both in terms of quality and style.

“[In order] to break the cycle of consumption and dissatisfaction”,

“With ethical fashion you are not necessarily paying just for cut and trend, you are also buying into a vision.” Lucy Siegle cxxiv

This idea of garments with a story, and the expense that would be commanded, may mean this concept Kate fletcher talks of the need for start as something quite ‘niche’, aimed garments, or the artefacts that clothe, at haute couture wear, but would in to be imbued with meaning, that they time filter down to the high-street should not just meet the physical needs level as is often the case. of the body, but also contribute and express a sense of self on a deeper level, Instead of ready to wear, poorly fitting clothes, often not quite what the way that brilliant and specifically was imagined, not the right shade or chosen design often does.cxx fit, too long or too tight, things could be made bespoke again. This would not satisfy the ‘I want it now’ attitudes of some consumers today but could equally work toward eradicating that unhealthy attitude. If garments are precious, something to be invested in, they could be passed down like heirlooms.

81. Lucy Siegle introduced the concept of buying the story, not just investment buying higher priced, luxury items, but items from sustainable brands where each piece has a history and an ethical position. Whether it’s the fabric, the process or the knowledge of exactly who made the garment. This wealth of information about a garment aims to make the item more valuable and more valued by the consumer.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Clothing could be made more emotionally durable, value durable. They would have to be made better, made for longevity in order for this to be successful. A dialogue with Stern, focuses on the idea that the mindset of the consumer needs to change. Sustainable design is often more costly and of course the buyer wants the best for their money.

“What should be communicated, however, is that what is being paid for is not a never changing garment, but instead the ethical journey of the garment” 82

82. Susanne Stern.

The dyer’s have been paid fairly and worked in safe conditions and the process has not damaged the ecosystem in which it was embedded. Stern’s concept of ‘the natural life cycle of colour’ may be idealistic but is also an attainable one. She talks of how, like with any natural aging process, at first the colour is bright, bold and energetic but as it ages, it becomes more comfortable, less visually assertive, but no less valuable. She talks of how the empathy of the consumer must be provoked. They should be proud to own a garment bearing living and evolving colour. Suzanne Lee83 asserts that bio

fabricators and designers who work at the intersections of biology and design, are the future of sustainable design and of the planet in generalcxxi. Cyrill Gutsch84 states that it should not be about blame and shame, but commitment to change going forward. Creators, inventors and designers must look inward for solutions, and make use of their skills to drive a revolution. What’s needed is a materials revolution, and in this way, colour is to be considered a material.cxxii

83. Founder of Biofabricate 84. f Parley for the Oceans.

Chapter 4: The Need for a Shift in Attitudes Towards Colouring Textiles

Figure 42. There are so many excess garments in Kantamanto that when it rains, seller throw clothes onto the ground to soak up the mud.

‘Fast Fashion’ developed, party, from a system of rapidly changing trends. No longer conforming to the traditional 2 or 4 seasons, high-street brands introduced the fear of missing out to the consumer. The conception of the micro trend85 and the lack of restock meant

This increase in trends, in combination with a huge culture of comparison and consumer greed, means that buy and discard culture has grown exponentially. Garments have become litter.86 Räisänen calls for the people in authority, who create and push the trends, to make decisions to act more responsibly. The industry needs consumers to keep buying at the same pace but there is hope that a shift is coming, society cannot keep consuming in this way and steps need to be taken.87

85. Attributed to Zara. 86. They become so worthless that Siegle gives an example where, after being caught in the rain, a Primark paper bag split, the consumer in question abandoned the items on the ground as they weren’t deemed valuable enough to pick up. 87. Covid-19 and the lockdown restrictions have changed the way, perhaps, that people think about shopping and consuming, but that remains to be seen. As soon as shops

were opened there were long queues outside Primark. However, in conversation with many different types of people there is talk of a realisation of what is actually needed, which garments are comfortable, and which are actually needed. Bar the endorphin rush of an online purchase what is the need for new garments in a constant cycle?

that the consumer learnt to purchase fast and without consideration resulting in a higher number of garments never being worn at all. Instead of 2 or 4 season per year now there are 52, with new stock releases each weekcxxiii

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Conclusion: Changing the Problem Landscape.

In order to create a system where fabrics are coloured without harm to the environment there is a need for more than just non-toxic colour practices. Microbial colour can be fermented and grown all over the world without need for specific conditions and large amounts of land. This means entire local systems, including colour production, fabrication and construction could be created, reducing energy outputs and the need for travel. This would take the burden of production and pollution away from overstressed areas and disrupt the patterns of financially secure countries over consuming and developing nations paying in environmental, social and human cost. Furthermore, this could allow reactions to local trends and needs rather than an adherence to a global system of consumption.88 This links to the idea of co-operative or open source working. Kenji Higashi,89 talks of the need to distribute knowledge, to work on creating a future ‘together’ as designers, makers, scientist and inventors.cxxv

88. Furthermore, certain microbes from different habitats react in different ways linking back to this idea of local colour. One organism may thrive in a hot humid environment whereas others would do better in cold dry areas, so this fits with the concept of many local systems within a larger global system. 89. from Spiber, a company tackling global issues through industrially fermented protein materials.

Conclusion: Changing the Problem Landscape

Figure 43. Bananatex fibre is 100% natural and biodegradable. Products with all natural materials, for example cellulose thread and fastenings, so the entire bag will be compostabe at the end of life once the metal zip is removed.

Knowledge has become commoditised and as such is not something easily shared. In order to create harmonious ecosystems, there is a need for numerous hubs of production and design in multiple locations. It therefore makes sense for knowledge to be collective rather than have many minds working on repetitive research and development. When it comes to the materiality of

garments, there is emphasis on the circular system, but designing for death should not be just about materials, but also colour. If a garment is to be fully biodegradable and compostable if buried in the soil, it needs to be made clear how the colour interacts with that system. The colour, if derived from nature, the very organisms which live in the soil, should be able to return to it without negative impact.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

Laurencin talks further on this idea of design for death saying true circularity is in every step. At the inception the designer thinks about the resources, not just what they are made from but what happens to them, the processes used, they consider the process output and any surplus, how the fabrics are coloured, and constructed, worn, and where they will go when they have ended their useful lives.cxxvi Cyndi Rhoades,90 states that no one person, brand or designer can achieve circularity on their own, that’s the nature of an ecosystem, the whole industry needs to play a part in order to be truly circular.

“In the current era of mass clothing over production, circularity will not eliminate fashion’s environmental and waste impacts. We also need to move faster towards designing textiles and clothes for longevity, disassembly, recycling and reuse, as without that circularity will not be implementable.” Fashion Revolution.cxxxiii

90. CEO of ‘Worn again technologies’, a company developing processes to recycle mixed fibre fabrics.

Conclusion: Changing the Problem Landscape

“Sustainable consumption demands cultural change.”cxxxiv Certainly, the consumer mindset needs to change. With the world currently produces 1.6 times more waste than the planet is able to absorb or process, and is far beyond its safe operating capacity in terms of climate change, pollution, changes in land use, and biochemical output.cxxvii

Figure 44. Bags of recycled clothes and surplus fabric.

Even if the system of designing and manufacturing garments shifts towards a longevity focused model, the high consumer demand for cheap and disposable fashion is an equally destructive issue, argues Professor Tim Cooper.91

91. From the Nottingham Trent university Clothing Sustainability Research Group.

Previously the question was asked whether a consumer would still feel comfortable paying so little for a garment if they knew who had constructed it or dyed it, the quantity of chemicals and dye used and the specific effect on an eco-system that the processing of that garment entailed.92 In that vein of thought Maxine Bédat93 calls for a change in the labelling on clothes to allow more easily accessible information regarding the impact94 of the garment. This would enable consumers to make more empathetic choices and have the resources to authentically connect with the true cost of what they are purchasing.cxxviii

92. Fashion Revolution’s 2020 white paper states that consumers would not only be willing to pay more for garments that had less of a negative impact on the environment and paid workers a fairer wage, but also that they believe fashion brands have a responsibility to address global poverty, and climate change. 93. Former human rights attorney and now CEO of Zady. 94. Water, Climate, Social.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

“Mindsets are beginning to shift. Consumers are becoming increasingly concerned about the social and environmental impacts of the industry.” Fashion Revolution.cxxxv Consumers have power to enact change and brands follow the money trail, they pay attention to what is being bought. It is true that often consumers are led by trends, by what they are told to desire by fashion media, but in recent years more information regarding the environmental impact of fashion has meant increasing amounts of shoppers demanding more ethical choices. There is a growing questioning of ‘Fast Fashion’ as a whole and the system of

overconsumption which needs to be translated into action.cxxix A true solution must be viable on multiple levels: changes in global legislation to force production industry to modify its processes and habits;cxxx improvement in brand ethics and adherence to sustainability goals and supply chain worker treatment; and education for consumers. There is power in purchasing, and in simple terms if products go unsold, companies stop making them. However, it is all very well to talk about changes in western markets, but there is a responsibility to make these changes available and implementable in the countries where the manufacturing takes place. Wealthy countries need to take responsibility for the outsourcing of production and pollution and step away from an attitude of intentional ignorance when it comes to the negative impacts of the processes implemented in their supply chains. Rather than asking the dye houses in India or Bangladesh to pay large quantities of money for new sustainable technology upgrades, there needs to be

95. Concept raised by Candice Rodney-Sobers, printed textiles technician and lecturer.

Conclusion: Changing the Problem Landscape

inbuilt financial support from brands and retailers, and appropriate systems to put new technology into practice. There must be a shift away from the ‘profit-over-people’ agenda that has persisted for so long.cxxxiThought

must be given to where the money in the supply chain goes to, with the vast amount of profit inhabiting the top of the chain this does not leave even a living wage for most production workers.cxxxii A shift from a money centred, to a holistic planet focused system is required. There is an argument that colour, and coloured garments should no longer be so freely and cheaply available. Even if colour is produced by biological means, history has shown that human intervention, though well-meaning often creates a negative reaction in the process. Perhaps there should be a return to ‘organic fashion’,95 where the natural colour of the fibres is enough. People may have a few prized garments of colour in their wardrobes, but colour would return to its previous sacred position. If colour gains back its status as a divine and valued part of life, it could be that the impact, which currently so plagues the world, ceases to be inherent to the use of colour.

In conclusion the future should be focused on truly becoming part of the symbiotic cycles and processes that already exist in the natural world. Nature is the most sophisticated organic system on earth where everything has a use. If an element or activity becomes unbalanced, a counteracting biological solution is developed. Nothing is wasted, with each process’s surplus feeding another’s growth. As humans there is a need to work out and step into our place in this structure and make sure that when a new process is created, it too fits into this system, to give as well as take. There is a need to ensure that resources are not exploited. Something that is in abundance should not be depleted until extinction but instead mindfully utilised.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

There is a need to change the problem landscapes by addressing issues one step at a time. There likely will not be one big fix that addresses the entire problem of the negative impact of the colouration of textiles, but the way forward is a focus on fair systems of use and production. For the planet, the water bodies, the forests, the soil. For the garment and dye workers. For the communities and populations who live in areas of industrial production. Design and production need to evolve sufficiently that every new invention, process or product is designed not just for death but for evolution. It is essential that anything produced has its material origin, processing and eventual end of life thoroughly planned and its place in nature’s continuous biological cycle considered.

Justice focused, economically viable decision making is essential for the future of this planet.

References

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75 xix What Color Is the Sacred? xx What Color Is the Sacred? xxi Natasha Eaton, Colour, Art and Empire: Visual Culture and the Nomadism of Representation (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013). xxii Green Is The New Black on Facebook Watch <https:// www.facebook.com/greenisthenewblackcom/videos/thisearth-day-weve-lined-up-three-engaging-live-digital-sessionsfor-the-mind-b/3171921412858506/> [accessed 22 April 2020]. xxiii Yvonne Bang, ‘Microbes Might Paint Your Next Party Dress’, JSTOR Daily, 2017 <https://daily.jstor.org/microbespaint-next-party-dress/> [accessed 28 May 2020]. xxiv PILI - WE BIOFABRICATE LIVING COLORS <https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=iscwuujSr_8> [accessed 27 May 2020]. xxv Aviva Rutkin ABC, ‘Pigment-Making Microbes Could Replace Dirty Synthetic Dyes’, New Scientist, 9 January 2016 <https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22930552-500pigment-making-microbes-could-replace-dirty-syntheticdyes/> [accessed 29 May 2020]. xxvi Caroline Till, Radical Matter - Caroline Till -RCA Webinar., 2020 <https://rca.cloud.panopto.eu/Panopto/ Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=45b55686-5eef-4587-934bab9f00f2cef5&query=radical%20matter> [accessed 1 July 2020]. xxvii Hazardous Chemical Substances in Textiles (KEMI Swedish Chemical agency, August 2016) <https://www.kemi. se/global/rapporter/2016/report-8-16-hazardous-chemicalsubstances-in-textiles.pdf>. xxviii Erik Isakson and Getty Images, Style That’s Sustainable: A New Fast-Fashion Formula, p. 6. xxix guestanthropologist, ‘Our “Fashion Fast”: Week 2’, Culture and Capitalism, 2019 <https:// cultureandcapitalismblog.wordpress.com/2019/03/27/ourfashion-fast-week-2/> [accessed 1 July 2020]. xxx ‘Labour behind the Label’, Labour Behind the Label, 2019 <https://labourbehindthelabel.org/boohoo/> [accessed 30 June 2020]. xxxi www.fibre2fashion.com, ‘Safety and Health Issues in the Textile Industry - Free Industry Articles - Fibre2fashion.Com’, p. 2 <http://www.fibre2fashion.com/industry-article/2554/ safety-and-health-issues-in-the-textile-industry> [accessed 30 June 2020]. xxxii Ellen MacArthur Foundation, A New Textiles Economy: Redesigning Fashion’s Future, 28 November 2017, p. 150. xxxiii Wright. xxxiv Janet Best, Colour Design: Theories and Applications (Woodhead Publishing, 2017). xxxv Best. xxxvi Best. xxxvii Robert Chenciner, Madder Red: A History of Luxury and Trade (London, UNITED KINGDOM: Taylor & Francis Group, 2000) <http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/rcauk/ detail.action?docID=181166> [accessed 30 June 2020]. xxxviii ‘Des Colorants Bio ET Industriels Avec PILI’, La Tribune <https://www.latribune.fr/entreprises-finance/greenbusiness/l-actualite/des-colorants-bio-et-industriels-avec-

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

pili-560445.html> [accessed 29 May 2020]. xxxix ‘Dyes and Colourants from Algae’ <http://www. seacolors.eu/images/dyes_and_colourants_from_algae.pdf>. xl Peter J.T Morris and Anthony S. Travis, ‘A History of the International Dyestuff Industry’, American Dyestuff Reporter, 81.11 (1992) <http://colorantshistory.org/ HistoryInternationalDyeIndustry.html> [accessed 26 June 2020]. xli Orna. xlii Bang. xliii ‘Dyecoo’ <http://www.dyecoo.com/> [accessed 30 June 2020]. xliv. Best. xlv.Natsai Audrey Chieza, Fashion Has a Pollution Problem -- Can Biology Fix It? <https://www.ted.com/talks/natsai_ audrey_chieza_fashion_has_a_pollution_problem_can_ biology_fix_it> [accessed 4 May 2020]. xlvi Kristine Vejar, The Modern Natural Dyer: A Comprehensive Guide to Dyeing Silk, Wool, Linen and Cotton at Home (Harry N. Abrams, 2015). xlvii What Color Is the Sacred? xlviii Richard Blackburn, Sustainable Textiles: Life Cycle and Environmental Impact (Elsevier, 2009). xlix Ellen MacArthur Foundation. l Blackburn. li D Maxwell, L McAndrews, and J Ryan, The State of the Apparel Report: Water (The sustainable Fashion Academy (SFA), August 2015). lii ‘The Colours of Nature – Natural Dyes & Dyeing’ <http:// thecoloursofnature.com/> [accessed 27 April 2020]. liii ‘Cities Nationwide Look to Increase Water Contamination Readiness - Global Times’ <http://www.globaltimes.cn/ content/696933.shtml> [accessed 15 June 2020]. liv ‘China’s River Pollution “a Threat to People’s Lives” People’s Daily Online’ <http://en.people.cn/90882/7732438. html> [accessed 15 June 2020]. lv Ellen MacArthur Foundation. lvi The Wardrobe To Die For | Lucy Siegle | TEDxSalford <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YglyHzvBqpA> [accessed 15 June 2020]. lvii Valuing Our Clothes: The Cost of UK Fashion. (WRAP, July 2017) <http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/valuingour-clothes-the-cost-of-uk-fashion_WRAP.pdf>. lviii ‘Labour behind the Label’. lix Siegle, Lucy, To Die for: Is Fashion Wearing out the World? (Fourth Estate, 2011). lx ‘Dead White Man’s Clothes’, Fashion Revolution, 2019 <https://www.fashionrevolution.org/dead-white-mansclothes/> [accessed 1 July 2020]. lxi I. am Renew, ‘Bangladesh’s Polluted Waters: Rivers Dying Due to Dyeing’, Renewable Energy and Environmental Sustainability in India, 2019 <https://www.iamrenew.com/ environment/bangladeshs-polluted-waters-rivers-dying-dueto-dyeing/> [accessed 16 April 2020]. lxii Alden Wicker, ‘We Have No Idea How Bad Fashion Actually Is for the Environment’, Racked, 2017 <https://www. racked.com/2017/3/15/14842476/fashion-climate-changeenvironment-pollution> [accessed 21 May 2020].

lxiii Chieza. lxiv Michael Safi and agencies, ‘Ganges and Yamuna Rivers Granted Same Legal Rights as Human Beings’, The Guardian, 21 March 2017, section World news <https:// www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/21/ganges-andyamuna-rivers-granted-same-legal-rights-as-human-beings> [accessed 30 June 2020]. lxv Dirty Laudry: Unravelling the Corporate Connections to Toxic Water Pollution in China. (GreenPeace) <https://storage.googleapis.com/planet4-internationalstateless/2011/07/3da806cc-dirty-laundry-report.pdf>. lxvi Bang. lxvii Bang. lxviii Simon Glover and John Mowbray, ‘Busting Fashion’s Myths’, Eco Textiles, December 2019 <https://www.ecotextile. com/> [accessed 15 June 2020]. lxix Wicker, ‘We Have No Idea How Bad Fashion Actually Is for the Environment’. lxx Wicker, ‘We Have No Idea How Bad Fashion Actually Is for the Environment’. lxxi ‘Colorer Ses Vêtements Avec Des Bactéries’, Soon Soon Soon <https://www.soonsoonsoon.com/fr/detections/colorerses-vetements-avec-des-bacteries/> [accessed 27 May 2020]. lxxii ‘Our Love of Cheap Clothing Has a Hidden Cost – It’s Time for a Fashion Revolution’, World Economic Forum <https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/04/our-love-ofcheap-clothing-has-a-hidden-cost-it-s-time-the-fashionindustry-changed/> [accessed 5 June 2020]. lxxiii ‘Labour behind the Label’. lxxiv The Wardrobe To Die For | Lucy Siegle | TEDxSalford. lxxv List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor | U.S. Department of Labor (U.S. Office of Child Labour. Forced Labour and Human Trafficking) <https://www.dol.gov/ agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods> [accessed 29 June 2020]. lxxvi Bang. lxxvii The Wardrobe To Die For | Lucy Siegle | TEDxSalford. lxxviii ‘The State of Fashion 2019’, 2019, 108. lxxix ‘Our Love of Cheap Clothing Has a Hidden Cost – It’s Time for a Fashion Revolution’. lxxx The Wardrobe To Die For | Lucy Siegle | TEDxSalford. lxxxi Sustainable Fashion | Guillaume Boissonnat, Saba Gray, Cyndi Rhoades, Isabelle Laurencin <https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=EU3F-wcodHs&feature=youtu.be> [accessed 27 May 2020]. lxxxii Mohammad Al-Masum Molla and Refayet Ullah Mirdha, ‘Worries over Wastewater’, The Daily Star, 2019 <https:// www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/news/worries-over-wastewater-1700863> [accessed 30 June 2020]. lxxxiii What Color Is the Sacred? lxxxiv ‘ATHENAS’ <https://athenas.ksu.edu/about-us> [accessed 23 June 2020]. lxxxv ‘Dead White Man’s Clothes’. lxxxvi Alden Wicker, ‘Fashion’s Impact on the Environment Is Actually a Mystery’, Vox, 2020 <https://www.vox.com/ the-goods/2020/1/27/21080107/fashion-environment-factsstatistics-impact> [accessed 21 May 2020]. lxxxvii Kate Fletcher, Sustainable Fashion and Textiles:

References Design Journeys (Earthscan, 2008). lxxxviii Siegle, Lucy. lxxxix Elizabeth Paton, ‘After Factory Disaster, Bangladesh Made Big Safety Strides. Are the Bad Days Coming Back?’, The New York Times, 1 March 2020, section World <https:// www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/world/asia/rana-plazabangladesh-garment-industry.html> [accessed 11 June 2020]. xc Siegle, Lucy. xci Bang. xcii BioColour Kick-off Event 11.11.2019. xciii ‘PILI Website’. xciv ‘How Sustainability in Fashion Went from the Margins to the Mainstream’, 2019 <https://adage.com/article/ cmo-strategy/sustainability-fashion-mainstream/316828> [accessed 25 June 2020]. xcv ‘Des Colorants Bio ET Industriels Avec PILI’. xcvi Chieza. xcvii Chieza. xcviii Biofabricate, BIOFABRICATE 2019 Summit Highlights, 2019 <https://vimeo.com/381166474> [accessed 13 May 2020]. xcix Sustainable Fashion | Guillaume Boissonnat, Saba Gray, Cyndi Rhoades, Isabelle Laurencin. c Biofabricate. ci PILI - WE BIOFABRICATE LIVING COLORS. cii PILI - WE BIOFABRICATE LIVING COLORS. ciii Biofabricate. civ Sustainable Fashion | Guillaume Boissonnat, Saba Gray, Cyndi Rhoades, Isabelle Laurencin. cv ‘The Problem with Plastic’, PARLEY <https://www.parley.tv/ updates/2019/7/22/the-problem-with-plastic> [accessed 30 June 2020]. cvi ‘Worst Polluted: Projects Reports - Dye Industry.’ <https:// www.worstpolluted.org/projects_reports/display/105> [accessed 20 May 2020]. cvii BioColour Kick-off Event 11.11.2019. cviii ‘PILI Website’ <https://www.pili.bio/> [accessed 6 May 2020]. cix ‘The Index Project’ <https://theindexproject.org/award/ winnersandfinalists/pili?fbclid=IwAR0U0VaVQWohPKQJy MqnV89uzoPPpuBsYt4mG4wA2bHm3EyIa-YutG7sX54> [accessed 27 May 2020]. cx ‘Biofabricate - Website’, Biofabricate <https://www. biofabricate.co> [accessed 30 June 2020]. cxi ‘The Index Project’. cxii Chieza. cxiii Rutkin ABC. cxiv Ellen MacArthur Foundation. cxv Kate Fletcher and Lynda Grose, Fashion and Sustainability: Design for Change (Laurence King Publishing, 2012).

77 cxvi J Westendorf, ‘Carcinogenicity and DNA Adduct Formation Observed in ACI Rats after Long-Term Treatment with Madder Root, Rubia Tinctorum L’, Carcinogenesis, 19.12 (1998), 2163–68 <https://doi.org/10.1093/carcin/19.12.2163>. cxvii Sian Cain and Chris Johnston, ‘Clothes and Food Are Too Cheap in Britain, Says Vivienne Westwood’, The Guardian, 16 October 2014, section Life and style <https:// www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/oct/16/viviennewestwood-clothes-and-food-too-cheap> [accessed 29 June 2020]. cxviii Kate Fletcher, Craft of Use: Post-Growth Fashion (Routledge, 2016). cxix Siegle, Lucy. cxx Fletcher, Sustainable Fashion and Textiles. cxxi Biofabricate. cxxii Biofabricate. cxxiii The Wardrobe To Die For | Lucy Siegle | TEDxSalford. cxxiv Siegle, Lucy. cxxv Biofabricate. cxxvi Sustainable Fashion | Guillaume Boissonnat, Saba Gray, Cyndi Rhoades, Isabelle Laurencin. cxxvii John Kerr and John Landry, Pulse of the Fashion Industry 2017 (Global Fashion Agenda & the Boston Consulting group, 2017). cxxviii Wicker, ‘We Have No Idea How Bad Fashion Actually Is for the Environment’. cxxix ‘Fashion Revolution White Paper, 2020’. cxxx Ellen MacArthur Foundation. cxxxi ‘Denim and Slavery: Are You Uncomfortable yet? – Denim Dudes’ <https://denimdudes.co/denim-and-slaveryare-you-uncomfortable-yet/> [accessed 30 June 2020]. cxxxii Kerr and Landry. cxxxiii ‘Fashion Revolution White Paper, 2020’, Issuu <https:// issuu.com/fashionrevolution/docs/fr_whitepaper_2020_ digital_singlepages> [accessed 10 June 2020]. cxxxiv Fixing Fashion: Clothing Consumption and Sustainability (House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee, 19 February 2019) <https://publications. parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmenvaud/1952/fullreport.html#content> [accessed 29 June 2020]. cxxxv ‘Fashion Revolution White Paper, 2020’.

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

List of Illustrations.

Figure 1. Lloyd ‘Screen-printing with dye paste process photograph’ 18 June 2018, personal archive.

Figure 2. Japan’s Indigo Textiles’, THE KINDCRAFT, 2016 <https://thekindcraft.com/japanese-indigo-textiles/> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 3. ‘Greenpeace Report: Clothing Industry Shows Progress in Cutting Hazardous Chemicals’, Greenpeace International <https://www.greenpeace.org/international/ press-release/17739/greenpeace-report-clothing-industryshows-progress-in-cutting-hazardous-chemicals> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 4. ‘Arsenic and Old Tastes Made Victorian Wallpaper Deadly | Smart News | Smithsonian Magazine’ <https://www. smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/victorian-wallpaper-got-itsgaudy-colors-poison-180962709/> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figrue 5. ‘How to Celebrate Dia De Los Muertos in Guadalajara Like a Local | Away Lands’ <https://www. awaylands.com/story/how-to-celebrate-dia-de-los-muertosin-guadalajara-like-a-local/?fbclid=IwAR26UFhMjXmv-Xl5 nLZoHTN8ot98ELBHcC0xDNJqkVk4Py_H7LYZqs_Adx8> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 6. Lloyd ‘Photograph of a brightly painted traditional Philippino boat’ June 2019, personal archive. Figure 7. Sheri-Kae McLeod, ‘The Best Carnival Celebrations in the Caribbean’, Fodors Travel Guide, 2019, World <https:// www.fodors.com/world/caribbean/experiences/news/15places-to-experience-carnival-in-the-caribbean> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 8. Sanne De Wilde, The Island of the Colorblind <http://www.sannedewilde.com/pages/home/> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 9. National Geographic Society, ‘Festival of Colors’, National Geographic Society, 2012 <http://www. nationalgeographic.org/media/holi-festival/> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 10. ‘Hellebores: How to Handle and Divide Them The English Garden’ <https://www.theenglishgarden.co.uk/ expert-advice/gardeners-tips/handle-hellebores/> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 11. ‘The Environmental Costs of Fast Fashion | The Independent’ <https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/ fashion/environment-costs-fast-fashion-pollution-wastesustainability-a8139386.html> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 12. ‘Fashion Revolution White Paper, 2020’, Issuu <https://issuu.com/fashionrevolution/docs/fr_ whitepaper_2020_digital_singlepages> [accessed 10 June 2020]. Figure 13. Grace Bonney, ‘The Modern Natural Dyer – Design*Sponge’ <https://www.designsponge.com/2015/10/ diys-from-the-modern-natural-dyer-giveway.html> [accessed 9 July 2020].

Figure 14. ‘Cactus Photograph’ <https://i.pinimg.com/736x/ b6/84/9a/b6849a8e98d6f7d00181824c30413fbd.jpg> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 15. Susanne Stern, ‘The Future of Natural Dyes and Fibers?’, THE KINDCRAFT, 2017 <https://thekindcraft.com/ organic-prints/> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 16. Amy Qin, ‘Chinese Village Keeps Alive a Tradition of Indigo Dyeing’, The New York Times, 12 November 2017, section World <https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/12/world/ asia/china-indigo-dyeing.html> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 17. Alex Hyde, ‘Lichen {Parmelia Saxatilis} and Trentepohlia Sp.’ <https://alexhyde.photoshelter.com/image/ I00006JxLzbxH0Uo> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 18. Katrina Wilde, The First Law of Ecology - Naturally Dyed and Painted Textiles. <https://www.katrinawilde.com> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 19. Orla Doherty, Plastic on Blue Planet II (BBC) <https://www.documentary.org/blog/watch-thesedocumentaries-about-plastic-pollution> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 20. Erica Goode, ‘In Mexico, Weavers Embrace Natural Alternatives to Toxic Dyes’, The New York Times, 18 September 2017, section Science <https://www.nytimes. com/2017/09/18/science/mexico-textiles-natural-dyes.html> [accessed 26 June 2020]. Figure 21. ‘Fast Fashion Brand Slammed for Toxic Dyes.’, Peppermint Magazine, 2019 <https://peppermintmag. com/fast-fashion-brand-slammed-for-dangerous-dyes/> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 22. Goode. Figure 23. ‘What Is Causing Water Pollution? | S4S Designing a Sensibility for Sustainability’ <http://sites.exeter. ac.uk/s4s/are-dyes-polluting-our-water/> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 24. 4ento Green, ‘Did You Know?’ <https:// green.4ento.com/did-you-know-2/> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 25. The OR Foundation, ‘Dead White Man’s Clothes’ <https://deadwhitemansclothes.org/gallery> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 26. Liz Ricketts, ‘Dead White Man’s Clothes’, Fashion Revolution, 2019 <https://www.fashionrevolution.org/deadwhite-mans-clothes/> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 27. Manoocher Deghati, ‘Dhaka’s Dying Rivers Threaten Residents’, The New Humanitarian, 2009 <https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news/2009/07/13/ dhaka%E2%80%99s-dying-rivers-threaten-residents> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 28. Sea Cargo Shipping from UK to Africa | Secure Delivery | Cargo To Africa’ <https://www.cargotoafrica.co.uk/ index.php?/service/sea-cargo> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 29. Eco Warrior Princess, ‘How We Can Tackle Child Labor and Modern-Day Slavery in the Fashion Industry’ <https://ecowarriorprincess.net/2018/04/how-we-cantackle-child-labor-and-modern-day-slavery-in-the-fashionindustry-2/> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 30. Arrianna Towner, ‘Fast Fashion May Be Cheap, But It Comes at a Cost’, Truthout <https://truthout.org/articles/fast-

List of Illustrations fashion-may-be-cheap-but-it-comes-at-a-cost/> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 31. Purva Chawla, ‘How to Co-Cultivate with Living Technology: In Conversation with Natsai Audrey Chieza, Faber Futures’, MaterialDriven <https://www.materialdriven. com/blog/2016/10/4/how-to-co-cultivate-with-livingtechnology-in-conversation-with-natsai-audrey-chieza-faberfutures> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 32. Ibid. Figure 33. ‘Pili Invente La Couleur Durable’, Les Echos Planète, 2020 <https://planete.lesechos.fr/solutions/piliinvente-la-couleur-durable-498/> [accessed 27 May 2020]. Figure 34. BioFabricate, ‘BioFabricate Instagram Post’ <https://www.picuki.com/media/2253349028448651072> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 35. ‘Organism Designers at Ginkgo Bioworks Are Designing Tasty Food Flavors’, MOLD :: Designing the Future of Food <https://thisismold.com/process/manufacture/ginkgobioworks-christina-agapakis> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 36. ‘Organism Designers at Ginkgo Bioworks Are Designing Tasty Food Flavors’. Figure 37. Natsai Chieza, ‘Reflections from Ginkgo’s First Creative-in-Residence’, Ginkgo Bioworks, 2018 <https://www. ginkgobioworks.com/2018/04/11/creative-in-residence/> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 38. ‘The Biofabricators: AlgiKnit’, PARLEY <https:// www.parley.tv/updates/2018/11/15/algiknit> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 39. ‘5 Different Ways to Recycle Clothing without Killing the Environment - i-D’ <https://i-d.vice.com/en_uk/ article/kzyyzw/5-different-ways-to-recycle-clothing-withoutkilling-the-environment> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 40. Chieza. Figure 41. ‘Vivienne Westwood Spring Summer 2019 Collection | British Vogue’ <https://www.vogue. co.uk/gallery/vivienne-westwood-spring-summer 2019?image=5d54bd18c5242e000803f741> [accessed 9 July 2020]. Figure 42. The OR Foundation, ‘Dead White Man’s Clothes’ <https://deadwhitemansclothes.org/gallery> [accessed 9 July 2020].

The Colouration of Textiles: A Critical Analysis of the Environmental, Social and Ethical Cost

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